The aftermath of World War II saw the establishment of the Bretton Woods system, named after the conference that took place in 1944. This system set the stage for the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, institutions designed to stabilize and reconstruct the global economy. In 1951 English economist James E. Meade (1907–1995) published The Balance of Payments, volume 1 of “The Theory of International Economic Policy”, which proposed the theory of domestic divergence (internal and external balance), and promoted policy tools for governments. In 1955 he published volume 2 Trade and Welfare, which proposed the theory of the “second-best”, and promoted protectionism. Energy accounting was proposed in the early 1930s as a scientific alternative to a price system, or money method of regulating society.8081 Joseph Tainter82 suggests that a diminishing ratio of energy returned on energy invested is a chief cause of the collapse of complex societies. Falling EROEI due to depletion of non-renewable resources also poses a difficult challenge for industrial economies.

Keynesian Economics describes the economy in terms of large aggregates such as aggregate demand and supply, unemployment rate, inflation etc. It states that the government plays a major role in the economy by controlling fiscal and monetary policies. Aggregate demand is influenced by many economic decisions, which include fiscal and monetary policy, consumption patterns, investment, etc. The history of economic thought concerns different thinkers and their theories on economics, ranging from ancient times to the contemporary world. Studying the history of economic thought is very important because one cannot possess knowledge about economics until one knows its history. It helps to understand the origin of economics and how to shape the economic and political policy of the country.

He regarded prices not to be necessarily representative of the true value of goods and services. Following Locke, Smith thought true value of things derived from the amount of labor invested in them. In early times, and until the industrial revolution, economics was not a separate discipline but part of philosophy. Religious tenets and a concern for morality and history of economic thought ethics played a significant role in the views of early theorists.

Session 11 (Lecture) How should we respond to Crises? The Political Economy of Austerity

The Cambridge School was founded with the 1871 publication of Jevons’ Theory of Political Economy, developing theories of partial equilibrium and focusing on market failures. Earlier, economics was not considered a separate discipline, but after the 19th century, it emerged as a separate discipline. Economic thoughts talk about the thinkers and their theories in the field of economics. The three general beliefs in the history of economic thought are that historical processes and theory are interconnected, economic and social changes are continuous, and schools of economic thought are concerned with political, historical, social, practical, and moral issues. The theories developed by Walras, Marshall, and their successors would develop in the 20th century into the neoclassical school of economics—defined by mathematical modeling and assumptions of rational actors and efficient markets.

John Stuart Mill

It is one of the two heterodox schools in France, the other being l’école des conventions. Their interests revolves around accounting for the regime of regulation of specific historic stage of capitalsim. The economy was production lead, where firms first produce the optimal amount of a type of good in the cheapest manner possible, destined to me mass comsummed.

Labour, therefore, is the real measure of the exchangeable value of all commodities. The real price of every thing, what every thing really costs to the man who wants to acquire it, is the toil and trouble of acquiring it. Bernard Mandeville, (1670–1733), was an Anglo-Dutch philosopher, political economist and satirist. His main thesis is that the actions of men cannot be divided into lower and higher. The higher life of man is a mere fiction introduced by philosophers and rulers to simplify government and the relations of society. In fact, virtue (which he defined as “every performance by which man, contrary to the impulse of nature, should endeavour the benefit of others, or the conquest of his own passions, out of a rational ambition of being good”) is actually detrimental to the state in its commercial and intellectual progress.

The current mode of labor exchangeclarification needed has produced an erratic and unstable situation allowing the conditions for revolution. People themselves have become disposable commodities, as Marx wrote in The Communist Manifesto. In 1751, Neapolitan philosopher Ferdinando Galiani published a nearly exhaustive treatise on money called Della Moneta (On Money), 25 years before Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations, and therefore is seen as possibly the first truly modern economic analysis.

• In medieval times, scholars like Thomas Aquinas argued that it was a moral obligation of businesses to sell goods at a just price.
• Moreover, Keynes’s theory says that governments can be influential players in the economy—saving it from recession by implementing expansionary fiscal and monetary policy to increase economic output and stability.
• The world has moved from ancient times when philosophers and religious leaders were the authority on all things, economic issues included, through the division of disciplines into more specific fields, into an era of globalization and the emergence of a global economy.
• From the third millennium BCE onward, Egyptian scribes recorded the collection and redistribution of land and goods.

Men like Milton Friedman and Friedrich von Hayek caught the imagination of western leaders, warning of The Road to Serfdom and socialism, focusing their theory on what could be achieved through better monetary policy and deregulation. However, the reaction of governments through the 1980s has been challenged, and development economists like Amartya Sen and information economists like Joseph Stiglitz brought a new light to economic thought as the twenty-first century dawned. Karl Marx, a German philosopher and economist, developed the theory of communism, critiquing capitalism for its inherent class struggles. Concurrently, neoclassical economists like Alfred Marshall emerged, emphasizing the role of supply and demand in determining prices and resource allocation. Marx uses the word “commodity” in an extensive metaphysical discussion of the nature of material wealth, how the objects of wealth are perceived and how they can be used. He distinguishes the use value of a thing from its exchange value.58 The use value of a commodity exists only as that commodity is used or consumed.

Market regulation

The same year British economist Joan Robinson (1903–1983) published The Economics of Imperfect Competition. In the 17th century Britain went through troubling times, enduring not only political and religious division in the English Civil War, King Charles I’s execution, and the Cromwellian dictatorship, but also the Great Plague of London and Great Fire of London. Indeed, riches is assumed by many to be only a quantity of coin, because the arts of getting wealth and retail trade are concerned with coin. Others maintain that coined money is a mere sham, a thing not natural, but conventional only, because, if the users substitute another commodity for it, it is worthless, and because it is not useful as a means to any of the necessities of life, and, indeed, he who is rich in coin may often be in want of necessary food. But how can that be wealth of which a man may have a great abundance and yet perish with hunger, like Midas in the fable, whose insatiable prayer turned everything that was set before him into gold?.

Sustainability becomes an issue as survival is threatened due to climate change. In the 1930s Norwegian economist Ragnar Frisch (1895–1973) and Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen (1903–1994) pioneered Econometrics, receiving the first-ever Nobel Prize in Economics in 1969. In 1936 Russian-American economist Wassily Leontief (1905–1999) proposed the Input-Output Model of economics, which uses linear algebra and is ideally suited to computers, receiving the 1973 Nobel Economics Prize. After World War II, Lawrence Klein (1920–) pioneered the use of computers in econometric modeling, receiving the 1980 Nobel Economics Prize. In 1963–1964 as John Tukey of Princeton University was developing the revolutionary Fast Fourier Transform, which greatly speed up the calculation of Fourier Transforms, his British assistant Sir Clive Granger (1934–2009) pioneered the use of Fourier Transforms in economics, receiving the 2003 Nobel Economics Prize.

The resource covers the fascinating subject of the history of economic thought over the period 1700–1914. It contains an extensive range of primary and secondary resources, including full books, selected chapters, and journal articles, as well as new thematic essays, and subject introductions on key themes. There is also a video introduction to the subject from Heinz D. Kurz, one of the academic editors of the History of Economic Thought.

The Dismal Science: Marx and Malthus

• The digital age has given rise to discussions about the gig economy, automation, and the impact of technology on traditional economic structures.
• YSI fosters conversation among those who wish to engage with new economic thinking and connects young scholars to the Institute’s vast network of economists.
• For the just price arises from the abundance or scarcity of goods, merchants, and money…and not from costs, labour, and risk….
• The Vienna or Austrian school arose based on Menger’s Principles of Economics (1871), and included such Austrian economists as Bohm-Bawerk and Von Wieser.

The history of economic thought deals with different thinkers and theories in the subject that became political economy and economics, from the ancient world to the present day in the 21st Century. The most notable contribution by Adam Smith to the field of economics was in his book An Inquiry into Nature and Causes of Wealth of Nations, which was published in 1776. In this book, he described the industrialised capitalist system against mercantilism. Also, their major contribution to Smith is towards creating the concept of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and his theory of compensating wage differentials. Attention was paid to the history of economic thought (HET) by pioneers of economics such as Dupont de Nemours and Adam Smith.

A Brief History of Economics

Why should a book written out by hand be worth more than one which is printed, when the latter is better though it costs less to produce? Entering the 21st century, the global financial crisis of 2008 prompted a reassessment of economic models. Questions about the stability of financial markets and the role of regulatory frameworks gained renewed attention. Economists like Joseph Stiglitz and Paul Krugman contributed to discussions about the implications of the crisis and the need for reform. Through the Young Scholars Initiative (YSI), INET provides support to students, young professionals, or others who embrace new and critical ways of thinking about the economy.

With every boom and bust, with every capitalist crisis, thought Marx, tension and conflict between the increasingly polarized classes of capitalists and workers would heighten. Ultimately, led by the Communist party, Marx envisaged a revolution and the creation of a classless society. Mercantilism dominated Europe from the 16th to the 18th century.21 Despite the localism of the Middle Ages, the waning of feudalism saw new national economic frameworks begin to strengthen. After the 15th century voyages of Christopher Columbus and other explorers opened up new opportunities for trade with the New World and Asia, newly-powerful monarchies wanted a more powerful military state to boost their status. Mercantilism was a political movement and an economic theory that advocated the use of the state’s military power to ensure that local markets and supply sources were protected, spawning protectionism. As societies grew wealthier and trade grew more complex, economic theory turned to the mathematics, statistics, and computational modeling that economists use to help guide policymakers.

In this period the Scholastic theologians, notably Thomas Aquinas, took on the role of guiding society, and their writings included economic aspects of life. Four themes the Scholastics were particularly concerned with were property, justice in economic exchange, money, and usury. In this area they built on Greek thought as revived by medieval Muslim scholars, of whom perhaps the most well known was Ibn Khaldun of Tunisia.